The Importance of Health Insurance: Understanding Your Coverage Options

"The Importance of Health Insurance: Understanding Your Coverage Options"

Health insurance is a critical component of a comprehensive health care plan. It provides financial protection against the high costs of medical care and helps ensure that you and your family receive the care you need, when you need it. With the rising cost of healthcare, having health insurance has become increasingly important.

There are two main types of health insurance: private insurance and public insurance. Private insurance is provided by private companies and is typically purchased by individuals or through an employer. Public insurance, on the other hand, is funded by the government and is available to those who are eligible, such as those who are elderly, disabled, or low-income.

Private insurance plans come in a variety of forms, including health maintenance organizations (HMOs), preferred provider organizations (PPOs), point of service (POS) plans, and indemnity plans. Each type of plan has its own benefits and drawbacks, so it's important to understand the different options available and choose the one that best meets your needs.

In addition to traditional insurance, there are also alternative health care options, such as health savings accounts (HSAs), health care sharing ministries, and short-term health insurance plans. These options may provide limited coverage, but they can also be less expensive than traditional insurance and may be a good option for those who are healthy and looking for a more affordable option.

When purchasing health insurance, it's important to understand the coverage options available and what each plan covers. Some plans cover only basic health services, while others offer comprehensive coverage that includes things like hospital stays, prescription drugs, and mental health services. Understanding what is covered and what is not can help you make an informed decision about which plan is right for you.

Another important factor to consider when purchasing health insurance is the cost. Premiums, copays, and deductibles are all important factors to consider when determining the cost of insurance. It's important to compare the cost of different plans and to consider the overall cost of care, including the cost of services not covered by insurance.

Finally, it's important to regularly review and update your health insurance coverage to make sure that you are receiving the best possible coverage for your needs. This may involve reviewing your insurance policy, considering alternative options, and consulting with a healthcare professional or insurance agent to determine what changes, if any, need to be made.

In conclusion, health insurance is a critical component of a comprehensive health care plan. Understanding the different types of insurance and coverage options available, as well as the cost of care, can help you make an informed decision about which plan is right for you and your family. Regularly reviewing and updating your coverage can also ensure that you are receiving the best possible care for your needs.

The Benefits of Embracing Aging: How to Age Gracefully and Happily

Aging is a natural part of life, and it can be a time of growth and fulfillment. As we age, our bodies and minds change, and it's important to understand these changes and learn how to adapt to them. Embracing aging and making the most of our later years can lead to greater happiness and overall well-being.

One of the keys to aging gracefully is to maintain a healthy lifestyle. This includes eating a balanced diet, getting regular exercise, and getting enough sleep. Engaging in physical activity not only improves our physical health, but it also has a positive impact on our mental health and can help reduce stress. Exercise can also improve our cardiovascular health, increase our strength and flexibility, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

Dr. J. Fung

In addition to physical health, mental health is also important as we age. Keeping our minds active through activities such as reading, solving puzzles, and learning new skills can help improve cognitive function and prevent age-related declines.

Another way to embrace aging is to develop and maintain strong social connections. Studies have shown that social support can improve mental and physical health, reduce stress, and increase life satisfaction. This can include staying in touch with friends and family, joining clubs or organizations, volunteering, or simply taking the time to talk to neighbors.

Finally, it's important to have a positive attitude and a sense of purpose as we age. Finding meaning and fulfillment in our later years can help us feel fulfilled and engaged in life. This can include pursuing hobbies or interests, giving back to our communities, or simply finding joy in everyday experiences.

In conclusion, aging is a natural part of life, and there are many ways to age gracefully and happily. By focusing on physical and mental health, developing strong social connections, and having a positive attitude, we can make the most of our later years and live fulfilling lives.

The Rise of Plant-Based Diets and their Benefits for Health: Understanding the Trend and its Impact

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the popularity of plant-based diets. People are turning to plant-based diets for a variety of reasons, including health benefits, environmental concerns, and animal welfare. A plant-based diet is a type of diet that focuses on consuming foods that are derived from plants, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nuts.

Studies have shown that a plant-based diet can help reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers. It can also help improve gut health, boost energy levels, and lead to weight loss. Plant-based diets are typically rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which are essential for maintaining good health.

One of the key benefits of plant-based diets is that they are typically lower in saturated fats and higher in fiber, which helps to reduce cholesterol levels and prevent heart disease. Studies have also shown that plant-based diets can help regulate blood sugar levels and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. In addition, plant-based diets are also rich in antioxidants, which can help prevent oxidative stress and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer.

Harvard Health

In addition to the health benefits, plant-based diets are also more sustainable and environmentally friendly. By reducing the consumption of animal products, we can decrease our carbon footprint and reduce the strain on the planet's resources. Animal agriculture is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation, and adopting a plant-based diet can help mitigate these negative impacts.

Despite these benefits, many people are still skeptical about adopting a plant-based diet. Some are concerned about getting enough protein and other essential nutrients, while others simply miss the taste of meat and dairy products. However, with the increasing availability of plant-based alternatives, it's now easier than ever to incorporate more plant-based foods into your diet.

In conclusion, plant-based diets offer a multitude of benefits for both our health and the environment. Whether you're looking to improve your health, reduce your impact on the planet, or simply try something new, a plant-based diet is worth considering. With the right education and resources, anyone can incorporate more plant-based foods into their diet and reap the numerous health benefits.

Basics of green tea

Green Tea

Common Names: green tea

Latin Names: Camellia sinensis

© Steven Foster

Background

Green, black, and oolong teas all come from the same plant, Camellia sinensis, but are prepared using different methods. To produce green tea, leaves from the plant are steamed, pan fried, and dried.

Tea has been used for medicinal purposes in China and Japan for thousands of years.

Green tea as a beverage or dietary supplement is promoted for improving mental alertness, relieving digestive symptoms and headaches, and promoting weight loss. Green tea and its components, including epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), have been studied for their possible protective effects against heart disease and cancer.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved a topical ointment, sinecatechins (brand name Veregen), which includes extracted components of green tea leaves and is used for the treatment of genital warts.

How Much Do We Know?

Although many studies have been done on green tea and its extracts, definite conclusions cannot yet be reached on whether green tea is helpful for most of the purposes for which it is used.

What Have We Learned?

Green tea contains caffeine. Drinking caffeinated beverages throughout the day seems to prevent a decline in alertness. One study looked at the effect of taking only a main component of green tea—EGCG—on mental capabilities. In that study, mental capabilities in adults didn’t improve.

The FDA has approved a specific green tea extract ointment as a prescription drug for treating genital warts.

Studies of green tea and cancer in people have had inconsistent results. The National Cancer Institute does not recommend for or against using green tea to reduce the risk of any type of cancer.

A small number of studies suggests that both green and black tea might have beneficial effects on some heart disease risk factors, including blood pressure and cholesterol. The research has limitations though, including how the data was evaluated and differences in study populations, so no definite conclusions have been reached.

Green tea extracts haven’t been shown to produce a meaningful weight loss in adults who are overweight or obese. They also haven’t been shown to help people maintain a weight loss.

It’s uncertain whether green tea is helpful for other conditions.

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) is funding research on green tea and its extracts, including studies on new forms of green tea extracts for preventing symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease and for lowering cholesterol.

What Do We Know About Safety?

Green tea, when consumed as a beverage, is believed to be safe when used in amounts up to 8 cups per day. Keep in mind that only the amount of added caffeine must be stated on product labels and not the caffeine that naturally occurs in green tea.

Drinking green tea may be safe during pregnancy and while breastfeeding when consumed in amounts up to 6 cups per day (no more than about 300 mg of caffeine). Drinking more than this amount during pregnancy may be unsafe and may increase the risk of negative effects. Green tea may also increase the risk of birth defects associated with folic acid deficiency. Caffeine passes into breast milk and can affect a breastfeeding infant.

Although uncommon, liver problems have been reported in a number of people who took green tea products, primarily green tea extracts in pill form. People with liver disease should consult a health care provider before taking products with green tea extract. People taking green tea extracts, especially those with liver disease, should discontinue use and consult a health care provider if they develop symptoms of liver trouble (such as abdominal pain, dark urine, or jaundice).

Green tea is an ingredient in many over-the-counter weight loss products, some of which have been identified as the likely cause of rare cases of liver injury.

Green tea at high doses has been shown to reduce blood levels and therefore the effectiveness of the drug nadolol, a beta-blocker used for high blood pressure and heart problems. It may also interact with other medicines.

Keep in Mind

Take charge of your health—talk with your health care providers about any complementary health approaches you use. Together, you can make shared, well-informed decisions.

Source: Link 

Split wheel Motorcycle

 

Credit: BikesandBeards

How to Save Humanity from Extinction

How to Save Humanity from Extinction

Modern humans have only existed for a relatively brief amount of time, and presumably we’d like to stick around a lot longer. But how can we do that?

1. Figure out climate change:

The Earth’s climate has changed and shifted for millions of years. There have been times in the past when it’s been hotter than it is today, and times when it’s been cooler. But there is something different about the past century. As far as we can tell from the geologic record, there has been no time in Earth’s entire history when the climate has warmed so much in such a short amount of time. And we can see the effects of climate change everywhere: more frequent and more severe extreme weather events like tornados and hurricanes; droughts increasing; more varied weather, with seasons beginning to lack regularity; increased glacial melting and sea level rises. While climate change doesn’t necessarily pose an existential threat to human existence, it surely poses a threat to how we like to live our lives in modern society.

2. Figure out nukes:

Again, a single nuclear weapon doesn’t pose a threat to all of humanity, but the thousands of warheads in the world right now certainly do. But as time goes on, the chances of one nuclear detonation increases. Just consider all the “near misses” in recent history, where all-out nuclear war was averted thanks only to the quick thinking and cool headedness of solitary individuals. We can only try our luck for so long. And one accident or mishap can lead to larger scale nuclear conflict (in the aftermath of a single explosion, it’s difficult to tell if it was a rogue actor or an act of war). We need to disarm as much as possible to reduce the risk of catastrophe.

3. Figure out asteroids:

If you want to know the dire consequences for ignoring space-borne threats, just ask the dinosaurs how well it worked out for them. Asteroids and comets have the ability to trigger massive extinction events, wiping out vast numbers of entire species. While these kinds of events are thankfully incredibly rare, the risk they present are dire. For humanity to make it to the long-term, we need to equip ourselves with robust asteroid detection and mitigation strategies (NASA’s recent DART mission is a great place to start).

Best for Wear OS

Google Pixel Watch

While Apple has been honing their smartwatch and fitness tracker to a finely tuned machine, Google has been noticeably late to the party. When it finally debuted this year, reviews editor Julian Chokkattu noted that while it does include key fitness features like an ECG and a heart rate monitor, it doesn't have auto workout detection, fall detection, or SpO2 sensing. The Fitbit integration isn't as smooth as you might think, given that Google acquired the company in 2019—the app looks dated and cramped on the screen, and Wear OS needs more apps in general.

However, the Pixel is a notably beautiful watch and the heart of the fitness tracking experience is Fitbit's, which means that the data itself is very accurate and empowering (you will still have to pay for a Fitbit Premium subscription). Also, more features will be unrolling through 2023. If you've been waiting with bated breath for a Wear OS watch, this might be it.

Courtesy: wired.com

Best Watch for Android Owners

Samsung Galaxy Watch5

Samsung's new Galaxy Watch5 (7/10, WIRED Recommends) is the comfiest Wear OS smartwatch out there. It comes in 40- and 44-mm sizes and runs the latest version of Wear OS 3, meaning you get access to Google Maps' turn-by-turn navigation and Google Assistant, plus the best of Samsung's health features, including SpO2 measurements, auto-workout detection, sleep tracking, and an electrocardiogram. It's great for checking notifications and responding to them, too.

Like the Apple Watch, don't expect to go for days on a single charge. WIRED reviews editor Julian Chokkattu says he usually had to charge it after a day and a half. Unfortunately, this watch only works with Android phones, and ECG tracking is limited to Samsung phones (as is blood pressure monitoring, but that's not available in the US yet anyway). If you want a bigger watch that's just a bit more rugged, try the pricey Galaxy Watch5 Pro ($500), which has better battery life, has GPX support, and is made of more durable materials. Alternatively, if you want to save some cash, you can snag last year's Galaxy Watch4, which is still a great watch.

Courtesy: wired.com

Best Running Watch

Coros Pace 2

For years, I was convinced that no running watch would ever beat a Garmin. That changed when I tried the Coros Pace 2 (8/10, WIRED Recommends), which is now my favorite. It's unbelievably light, and the battery lasts for weeks between charges, which is a feature you won't find in any other watch on this list. It also integrates with Strava for mapping your runs and rides, and it uses the same multi-system satellite positioning system as Garmin to trace your route.

On the minus side, it has a basic LCD screen, and EvoLab—Coros' analytics platform, meant to compete with Garmin's Connect—is still in its early stages. Accuracy can be iffy; a few of my outdoor runs were improperly tracked. But Coros also offers a ton of small, useful features, like a locking screen and simple two-button operation, at a very accessible price.

★ Alternatives: Garmin's Forerunners represent an iconic running watch series, and this year's iteration includes drastically improved battery life via solar recharging. The Forerunner 955 Solar ($560) is a premium running watch for experienced, dedicated runners and triathletes, but it's expensive and large on my small wrist. The Forerunner 55 ($200) is fine for most people, but you won't get two weeks of battery life out of one charge.

However, if you have an iPhone, you should probably just get a Series 8. In addition to the running features that we wrote about earlier this year, new features continue to debut every few months in WatchOS. More recent ones now include automatic track detection and Race Route, which will allow you to race yourself on your favorite running routes.

Courtesy: wired.com

Best Budget FitnessTracker

Fitbit Inspire 3

If all you want is a simple health tracker that will track your steps and your sleep and let you know when someone is calling, the internet's marketplace is awash in knockoffs of this fitness tracker. For $80, you could get the original instead. This year, Fitbit released the latest version of its hugely popular Inspire, which thankfully does not use Wear OS. Instead, it continues to use Fitbit's clear and easy Fitbit app, has a pedometer that tracks SpO2 and sleep, and comes with a wide array of watch faces and accessories.

All wasn't easy-peasy. I had some connectivity issues and had to restart my phone when the Inspire 3 wouldn't update the time zone for a day or two. The Inspire 3 also regularly overestimated how much sleep I'd gotten, which made me mistrust their new Sleep Profile feature. For two months, I had a chronic nighttime cough; the Inspire 3 regularly logged me at 7 hours a night because I was lying still, when switching to a more sensitive fitness tracker put me at a much more accurate 5. However, if you have no health issues, it is more reliable and accessible than a knockoff Inspire 3, and Fitbit also regularly puts its trackers on sale.

★ Alternative: I also tried Amazon's Halo View ($35), which works with Alexa and uses Amazon's Activity Points system. However, I blow the Activity Points metric out of the water just by running, biking my kids to school and walking my dog, so I didn't find it particularly useful and I find the constant pushing of partnerships with Whole Foods and WW (formerly known as Weight Watchers) stressful.

Courtesy: wired.com

Samsung S23 Ultra

Galaxy S23 Ultra’s most advanced camera, next-level gaming performance, and more eco-conscious design come together in Samsung’s most innovative Galaxy S series yet

Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. today unveiled the Galaxy S23 Ultra, Galaxy S23+, and Galaxy S23, marking a new era of Samsung Galaxy’s ultimate premium phone experience. Samsung Galaxy’s epic camera gives users more freedom to explore their creativity, like capturing truly cinematic Nightography videos with transformative AI. The Snapdragon® 8 Gen 2 Mobile Platform for Galaxy unleashes a premium experience, including groundbreaking AI, future-ready mobile gaming experience and powerfully sustained game play with the world’s fastest mobile graphics(1). On the Galaxy S23 Ultra, an embedded S Pen(2) that many long-time Samsung Galaxy users know and love offers more possibilities for productivity, notetaking, hobbies and more. All the Galaxy S23 series’ new standard-setting innovations are housed within a striking design that advances the company’s sustainability commitment with more components using recycled materials than any other Samsung Galaxy smartphone(3).

“The value of impactful technology is measured, not just by what it enables for people today, but also how it contributes to a better future,” said TM Roh, President and Head of Mobile eXperience Business at Samsung Electronics. “The entire Galaxy S series is the new standard-bearers of a trustworthy premium smartphone experience. We’re on a mission to redefine peak performance by bringing together powerful, lasting innovations and sustainability.”

A Samsung Galaxy Camera with More Megapixels and Extensive Creative Controls, From Day to Night

Galaxy S23 Ultra makes it easier for any level of photographer to capture phenomenal content. It offers Samsung Galaxy’s most advanced camera system, tailored for nearly any lighting conditions and engineered to render incredible detail. Improved Nightography capabilities transform how the Galaxy S series optimizes photos and videos in a wide range of ambient conditions. Filming a favorite song at a concert, snapping a selfie at the aquarium, or grabbing a group shot of friends at dinner — users can get sharper images and videos(4). Visual noise that usually ruins low-light images is corrected by a new AI-powered image signal processing (ISP) algorithm that enhances object details and color tone.

In a Samsung Galaxy-first, Galaxy S23 Ultra boasts a new 200MP Adaptive Pixel sensor that captures epic moments with incredible precision. It uses pixel binning to support multiple levels of high-resolution processing at once(5). And because selfie cameras are more important than ever to how we communicate today, the Galaxy S23 series introduces fast autofocus and our first Super HDR selfie camera, jumping from 30fps to 60fps, for noticeably better front-facing images and videos.

For users who want the ultimate creative control and customization, the Galaxy S23 series offers a suite of tools that enhance any photography experience. The Expert RAW app(6), available exclusively through Samsung Galaxy, enables DSLR-style image shooting and editing in RAW and JPEG — no bulky camera equipment required. Users can experiment with Multiple exposures photo art or capture a clear view of the Milky Way with Astrophoto settings, and now, after being downloaded on Galaxy S23, Expert RAW features can be accessed within Samsung’s native Camera app. Meanwhile, the new zoom capabilities on Galaxy Watch5 series’ Camera Controller app(7) empower users to capture a perfectly framed shot right from their wrist.

Courtesy: Samsung news

Apple Series 8 watch

Apple Series 8 

People tend to hold on to their Apple Watches for years, and rightfully so—it is far and away the best fitness tracker if you have an iPhone. So if you want one, you're best off with the latest Series 8. We're still testing it, but this year's Series 8 comes with new body temperature sensors that are aimed at tracking menstrual cycles. It also has new safety features, such as Crash Detection. In the event of a severe car accident, the Series 8 will use a powerful new accelerometer and gyroscope as well as the barometer, GPS, and microphone to detect a car crash and alert emergency services if the user has not responded within 10 seconds.

These come in conjunction with a whole host of health and fitness features in WatchOS 9, such as better workout views, more in-depth running metrics, medication logging, and better sleep tracking. In comparison, the new Apple Watch SE has the latest S8 chip and will have Crash Detection, but no wrist-based body temperature sensing, as well as no older features like the blood oxygen or ECG app.

Courtesy: wired.com

Best Fitness Trackers and Watches for Everyone

Whether you’re skiing in the backcountry or trampolining in the backyard, we have an activity tracker for you.

LIKE EVERY PIECE of gear you wear on your body day in and day out, fitness trackers are incredibly personal. They have to be comfortable and attractive, sure, but they must also fit your lifestyle, as well as when and how you like to work out. Do you bike, row, or do strength training? Do you run on trails for hours at a time, or do you just want a reminder to get up every hour?

Best All-Around

Fitbit Charge 5

Even as Fitbit has faced stiff competition from other manufacturers—most notably, the Apple Watch—its trackers have always won me over. They hit a very specific sweet spot between attractiveness, affordability, accessibility, and ease of use. They're perfect for everyone who isn't an ultra-marathoner or a semipro powerlifter trying to hit a PR.

Runner-Up

Garmin Vívomove Sport

Picking a fitness tracker often means taking the proprietary software into consideration, as well as the hardware. Fitbit's app is really easy to use, but I also like Garmin's Connect, which I have found to be one of the most comprehensive digital health apps. If you discover that you like running, for example, it integrates easily with Strava. Unlike Fitbit, Garmin doesn't paywall most of its best features behind a premium subscription.

That makes Garmin's entry-level smartwatch my top pick for a first fitness tracker, especially since it doesn't look particularly sporty. It comes in a variety of colors and resembles an analog watch. Simply swipe along the bottom half of the touchscreen to log activities and check notifications. Not only can you track workouts, but you can also monitor your sleep and heart rate and check a few other of Garmin's proprietary algorithms, like your Body Battery, or how ready you are for the day. It's worth noting that most people get a Garmin because it is GPS-enabled, and the Vivomove Sport only uses connected GPS from your phone.

Courtesy: https://www.wired.com/

Smartwatches and Fitness Trackers: How They're Changing the Game for Health and Wellness

Smartwatches and fitness trackers have become increasingly popular in recent years, offering a convenient and effective way to monitor your health and wellness. In this post, we'll explore how these devices are changing the game for health and wellness.

One of the biggest benefits of smartwatches and fitness trackers is their ability to track physical activity and monitor vital signs such as heart rate, sleep patterns, and calorie burn. This data can be used to develop a more comprehensive picture of an individual's overall health, allowing them to make informed decisions about their diet, exercise, and overall lifestyle.

Another benefit of these devices is that they make it easier to set and track fitness goals. With features such as customized workout plans, progress tracking, and personalized coaching, users can stay motivated and on track with their fitness goals.

Smartwatches and fitness trackers also offer a convenient and easy way to manage stress and improve mental well-being. With features such as guided meditation and breathing exercises, users can take control of their mental health and reduce stress levels.

Finally, these devices provide a more convenient and accessible way to monitor health, reducing the need for frequent doctor visits and traditional health monitoring methods. This can be especially helpful for individuals with chronic health conditions, allowing them to better manage their health from home.

In conclusion, smartwatches and fitness trackers are revolutionizing the way we think about health and wellness. With their ability to track physical activity, monitor vital signs, and improve mental health, these devices are changing the game for health and wellness, offering individuals a more convenient and effective way to take control of their health.

Courtesy: AI Fitbit

The Benefits of Telehealth: Why More People are Turning to Virtual Doctor Visits

Telehealth, or virtual doctor visits, has become increasingly popular in recent years as technology continues to play a larger role in healthcare. With telehealth, patients can access medical services from the comfort of their own homes, saving time and reducing the need for in-person appointments. In this post, we'll explore some of the benefits of telehealth that are driving its growing popularity.

One of the biggest benefits of telehealth is convenience. With telehealth, patients don't have to take time off work or arrange transportation to visit a doctor. They can simply log in from their computer or smartphone and connect with a healthcare provider in real time. This can be especially helpful for individuals with mobility issues or those living in rural areas with limited access to medical services.

Telehealth also saves time by reducing wait times for appointments and eliminating the need for repetitive trips to the doctor. Virtual doctor visits can be scheduled more quickly and efficiently than in-person appointments, and follow-up visits can be done remotely, reducing the need for multiple trips to the doctor.

Another benefit of telehealth is improved access to medical care. Many individuals, especially those in rural areas, may struggle to find a doctor that can treat their specific condition. Telehealth eliminates geographical barriers and allows patients to access medical services from anywhere, at any time.

Finally, telehealth has the potential to reduce healthcare costs by reducing the need for in-person appointments and cutting down on unnecessary tests and treatments. With telehealth, patients can receive prompt and effective treatment for many conditions, reducing the risk of complications and reducing healthcare costs in the long run.

In conclusion, the benefits of telehealth are clear. With its convenience, improved access to medical care, and cost savings, it's easy to see why more and more people are turning to virtual doctor visits.

Source: AI and NYT

Your Brain Uses Calculus to Control Fast Movements

Your Brain Uses Calculus to Control Fast Movements

To sharpen its command over precise maneuvers, the brain uses comparisons between control signals—not the signals themselves.

A MOUSE IS RUNNING ON A TREADMILL EMBEDDED IN A VIRTUAL REALITY CORRIDOR. IN ITS MIND’S EYE, IT SEES ITSELF SCURRYING DOWN A TUNNEL WITH A DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OF LIGHTS AHEAD. THROUGH TRAINING, THE MOUSE HAS LEARNED THAT IF IT STOPS AT THE LIGHTS AND HOLDS THAT POSITION FOR 1.5 SECONDS, IT WILL RECEIVE A REWARD—A SMALL DRINK OF WATER. THEN IT CAN RUSH TO ANOTHER SET OF LIGHTS TO RECEIVE ANOTHER REWARD.

This setup is the basis for research published in July in Cell Reports by the neuroscientists Elie Adam, Taylor Johns and Mriganka Sur of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It explores a simple question: How does the brain—in mice, humans and other mammals—work quickly enough to stop us on a dime? The new work reveals that the brain is not wired to transmit a sharp “stop” command in the most direct or intuitive way. Instead, it employs a more complicated signaling system based on principles of calculus. This arrangement may sound overly complicated, but it’s a surprisingly clever way to control behaviors that need to be more precise than the commands from the brain can be.

Control over the simple mechanics of walking or running is fairly easy to describe: The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) of the brain sends signals to neurons in the spinal cord, which send inhibitory or excitatory impulses to motor neurons governing muscles in the leg: Stop. Go. Stop. Go. Each signal is a spike of electrical activity generated by the sets of neurons firing.

The story gets more complex, however, when goals are introduced, such as when a tennis player wants to run to an exact spot on the court or a thirsty mouse eyes a refreshing prize in the distance. Biologists have understood for a long time that goals take shape in the brain’s cerebral cortex. How does the brain translate a goal (stop running there so you get a reward) into a precisely timed signal that tells the MLR to hit the brakes?

“Humans and mammals have extraordinary abilities when it comes to sensory motor control,” said Sridevi Sarma, a neuroscientist at Johns Hopkins University. “For decades people have been studying what it is about our brains that makes us so agile, quick and robust.”

Read the full article here.